Answer:

I found the issue.
It wasn’t a cache or CDN problem. The mistake was on my side.

After building with Vite, I only uploaded the new manifest.json file to public_html/build/,
but Laravel actually reads it from project_root/public/build/manifest.json.

On my shared hosting (Rumahweb), the public_html folder is mapped to Laravel’s public directory,
so the correct manifest file must be inside project/public/build/manifest.json.

Once I uploaded the correct manifest.json to that location and cleared Laravel caches with:

php artisan optimize:clear

everything worked fine.